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Information on EC 2.4.1.241 - digalactosyldiacylglycerol synthase
for references in articles please use BRENDA:EC2.4.1.241
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EC Tree 2 Transferases
2.4 Glycosyltransferases
2.4.1 Hexosyltransferases
2.4.1.241 digalactosyldiacylglycerol synthase
IUBMB Comments
Requires Mg2+. Diacylglycerol cannot serve as an acceptor molecule for galactosylation as in the reaction catalysed by EC 2.4.1.46, monogalactosyldiacylglyerol synthase. When phosphate is limiting, phospholipids in plant membranes are reduced but these are replaced, at least in part, by the glycolipids digalactosyldiacylglycerol (DGDG) and sulfoquinovosyldiacylglycerol . While both DGD1 and DGD2 are increased under phosphate-limiting conditions, DGD2 does not contribute significantly under optimal growth conditions. DGD2 is responsible for the synthesis of DGDG molecular species that are rich in C16 fatty acids at sn-1 of diacylglycerol whereas DGD1 leads to molecular species rich in C18 fatty acids . The enzyme has been localized to the outer side of chloroplast envelope membranes.
The expected taxonomic range for this enzyme is: Eukaryota, Bacteria
- 2.4.1.241
- galactolipids
- monogalactosyldiacylglycerol
-
thylakoids
- cyanobacteria
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photosystem
-
phosphate-limiting
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grana
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prothylakoids
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galactolipid:galactolipid
- cyanidioschyzon
- sulfoquinovosyldiacylglycerol
- protochlorophyllide
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etioplasts
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prolamellar
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oligogalactolipids
Reaction Schemes
showSynonyms
dgdg synthase, mtdgd1, digalactosyldiacylglycerol synthase 1, digalactosyldiacylglycerol synthase 2, udp-galactose-dependent dgdg synthase, 7942dgda, digalactosyldiacylglycerol synthase, more
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SYNONYM 
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY 
LITERATURE
7942dgdA
DGD1
DGD2
dgdA
DGDG synthase
digalactosyldiacylglycerol synthase 1
UDP-galactose:MGDG galactosyltransferase
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REACTION
REACTION DIAGRAM
COMMENTARY
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
LITERATURE
UDP-alpha-D-galactose + 1,2-diacyl-3-O-(beta-D-galactosyl)-sn-glycerol = UDP + 1,2-diacyl-3-O-[alpha-D-galactosyl-(1->6)-beta-D-galactosyl]-sn-glycerol
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REACTION TYPE
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY
LITERATURE
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PATHWAY SOURCE
PATHWAYS
MetaCyc
gala-series glycosphingolipids biosynthesis, galactolipid biosynthesis I, galactolipid biosynthesis II
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SYSTEMATIC NAME
IUBMB Comments
UDP-galactose:3-(beta-D-galactosyl)-1,2-diacyl-sn-glycerol 6-alpha-galactosyltransferase
Requires Mg2+. Diacylglycerol cannot serve as an acceptor molecule for galactosylation as in the reaction catalysed by EC 2.4.1.46, monogalactosyldiacylglyerol synthase. When phosphate is limiting, phospholipids in plant membranes are reduced but these are replaced, at least in part, by the glycolipids digalactosyldiacylglycerol (DGDG) and sulfoquinovosyldiacylglycerol [3]. While both DGD1 and DGD2 are increased under phosphate-limiting conditions, DGD2 does not contribute significantly under optimal growth conditions. DGD2 is responsible for the synthesis of DGDG molecular species that are rich in C16 fatty acids at sn-1 of diacylglycerol whereas DGD1 leads to molecular species rich in C18 fatty acids [3]. The enzyme has been localized to the outer side of chloroplast envelope membranes.
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CAS REGISTRY NUMBER
COMMENTARY
69913-00-4
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SUBSTRATE
PRODUCT
REACTION DIAGRAM
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
LITERATURE
COMMENTARY
Reversibility
r=reversible
ir=irreversible
?=not specified
r=reversible
ir=irreversible
?=not specified
UDP-alpha-D-galactose + 1,2-diacyl-3-O-(beta-D-galactosyl)-sn-glycerol
UDP + 1,2-diacyl-3-O-[alpha-D-galactosyl-(1->6)-beta-D-galactosyl]-sn-glycerol
Substrates: -
Products: -
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UDP-galactose + digalactosyldiacylglycerol
UDP + trigalactosyldiacylglycerol
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Substrates: -
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UDP-galactose + monogalactosyldiacylglycerol
UDP + digalactosyldiacylglycerol
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Substrates: DGD1 seems to act preferentially on monogalactosyldiacylglycerol molecular species with 18-carbon fatty acids in the two positions of monogalactosyldiacylglycerol in vivo
Products: -
Products: -
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UDP-galactose + monogalactosyldiacylglycerol
UDP + digalactosyldiacylglycerol
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Substrates: DGD2 seems to act preferentially on monogalactosyldiacylglycerol molecular species with 16-carbon fatty acids in the sn-1 position and on 18-carbon fatty acid in the sn-2 position in vivo
Products: -
Products: -
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UDP-galactose + monogalactosyldiacylglycerol
UDP + digalactosyldiacylglycerol
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Substrates: -
Products: -
Products: -
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UDP-galactose + monogalactosyldiacylglycerol
UDP + digalactosyldiacylglycerol
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Substrates: -
Products: -
Products: -
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UDP-galactose + monogalactosyldiacylglycerol
UDP + digalactosyldiacylglycerol
Substrates: -
Products: -
Products: -
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UDP-galactose + monogalactosyldiacylglycerol
UDP + digalactosyldiacylglycerol
Substrates: -
Products: -
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additional information
?
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-
Substrates: DGD2 mRNA expression in leaves is very low but is strongly induced during growth under phosphate-limiting conditions
Products: -
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additional information
?
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Substrates: disruption of the two digalactosyldiacylglycerol synthase genes DGD1 and DGD2 in Arabidopsis reveals the existence of an additional enzyme of galactolipid synthesis
Products: -
Products: -
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additional information
?
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Substrates: a null-mutant of Arabidopsis, which lacks the DGDG synthase (DGD1) resulting in a 90% reduction in the amount of DGDG under normal growth conditions, accumulates digalactosyldiacylglycerol after phosphate deprivation up to 60% of the amount present in the wild-type. Extraplastidic biosynthesis of digalactosyldiacylglycerol induced by phosphate deprivation is a biochemical mechanism for plants to conserve phosphate
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Products: -
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NATURAL SUBSTRATE
NATURAL PRODUCT
REACTION DIAGRAM
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
LITERATURE
COMMENTARY
REVERSIBILITY
r=reversible
ir=irreversible
?=not specified
r=reversible
ir=irreversible
?=not specified
UDP-alpha-D-galactose + 1,2-diacyl-3-O-(beta-D-galactosyl)-sn-glycerol
UDP + 1,2-diacyl-3-O-[alpha-D-galactosyl-(1->6)-beta-D-galactosyl]-sn-glycerol
Substrates: -
Products: -
Products: -
?
UDP-galactose + monogalactosyldiacylglycerol
UDP + digalactosyldiacylglycerol
-
Substrates: DGD1 seems to act preferentially on monogalactosyldiacylglycerol molecular species with 18-carbon fatty acids in the two positions of monogalactosyldiacylglycerol in vivo
Products: -
Products: -
?
UDP-galactose + monogalactosyldiacylglycerol
UDP + digalactosyldiacylglycerol
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Substrates: DGD2 seems to act preferentially on monogalactosyldiacylglycerol molecular species with 16-carbon fatty acids in the sn-1 position and on 18-carbon fatty acid in the sn-2 position in vivo
Products: -
Products: -
?
UDP-galactose + monogalactosyldiacylglycerol
UDP + digalactosyldiacylglycerol
Substrates: -
Products: -
Products: -
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additional information
?
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Substrates: DGD2 mRNA expression in leaves is very low but is strongly induced during growth under phosphate-limiting conditions
Products: -
Products: -
?
additional information
?
-
-
Substrates: disruption of the two digalactosyldiacylglycerol synthase genes DGD1 and DGD2 in Arabidopsis reveals the existence of an additional enzyme of galactolipid synthesis
Products: -
Products: -
?
additional information
?
-
-
Substrates: a null-mutant of Arabidopsis, which lacks the DGDG synthase (DGD1) resulting in a 90% reduction in the amount of DGDG under normal growth conditions, accumulates digalactosyldiacylglycerol after phosphate deprivation up to 60% of the amount present in the wild-type. Extraplastidic biosynthesis of digalactosyldiacylglycerol induced by phosphate deprivation is a biochemical mechanism for plants to conserve phosphate
Products: -
Products: -
?
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METALS and IONS
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY
LITERATURE
additional information
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ACTIVATING COMPOUND
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY
LITERATURE
IMAGE
Lipid
activity is stimulated by the presence of negatively charged lipids, which highlight the importance of the membrane environment in modulating the activity of the enzyme
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DISEASE
TITLE OF PUBLICATION
LINK TO PUBMED
Infections
Digalactosyldiacylglycerol Synthase Gene MtDGD1 Plays an Essential Role in Nodule Development and Nitrogen Fixation.
Infertility, Male
OsDGD2? is the Sole Digalactosyldiacylglycerol Synthase Gene Highly Expressed in Anther, and its Mutation Confers Male Sterility in Rice.
Starvation
Digalactosyldiacylglycerol Synthase Gene MtDGD1 Plays an Essential Role in Nodule Development and Nitrogen Fixation.
Starvation
Type-B monogalactosyldiacylglycerol synthases are involved in phosphate starvation-induced lipid remodeling, and are crucial for low-phosphate adaptation.
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pH OPTIMUM
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY
LITERATURE
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pH RANGE
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY
LITERATURE
5.5 - 8.5
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pH 5.5: about 25% of maximal activity, pH 8.5: about 45% of maximal activity
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ORGANISM
COMMENTARY
LITERATURE
UNIPROT
SEQUENCE DB
SOURCE
digalactosyldiacylglycerol synthase 1; cultivars EPACE-1 and 1183
UniProt
brenda
digalactosyldiacylglycerol synthase type 2 fragment; cultivars EPACE-1 and 1183
UniProt
brenda
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SOURCE TISSUE
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY
LITERATURE
SOURCE
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DGD2 mRNA expression in leaves is very low but is strongly induced during growth under phosphate-limiting conditions
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LOCALIZATION
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY
GeneOntology No.
LITERATURE
SOURCE
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the enzyme is targeted to the chloroplast outer envelope in an ATP-independent manner
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DGD2 is localized to the outer side of chloroplast envelope membranes
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DGD1 associated with the outside of the outer envelope of chloroplasts. Does not require ATP for insertion and is not processed
brenda
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DGD2 associated with the outside of the outer envelope of chloroplasts. DGD2 is processed and requires ATP for insertion
brenda
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membrane, outer membrane protein. Insertion of digalactosyldiacylglycerol synthase 1 into the membrane is reduced by either nucleotide depletion or proteolysis of the chloroplasts DGD1 integration
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integral membrane protein of the outer envelope of the chloroplast
brenda
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DGD2 is localized to the outer side of chloroplast envelope membranes
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DGD2 is strongly associated with the membrane, binding is highly dynamic
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located on the symbiosome membranes in the infected cells
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Highest Expressing Human Cell Lines
Cell Line LinksPlease wait a moment until the data is sorted. This message will disappear when the data is sorted.
GENERAL INFORMATION
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY
LITERATURE
malfunction
physiological function
additional information
residues Gly22, His151, Lys243, and Glu321, DGD2 numbering, are entirely conserved between the structurally similar enzymes
malfunction
MtDGD1-RNA interference transgenic plants exhibit significant decreases in nodule number, symbiotic nitrogen fixation activity, and digalactosyldiacylglycerol abundance in the nodules, as well as abnormal nodule and symbiosome development
malfunction
in etiolated dgd1 (knockout mutant) seedlings, digalactosyldiacylglycerol content decreases to 20% of the wild-type level, the lattice structure of prolamellar bodies is disordered, and the development of prothylakoids is impaired. Membrane-associated processes of protochlorophyllide biosynthesis, formation of the protochlorophyllide-NADPH:protochlorophyllide oxidoreductase-NADPH complex, and dissociation of the complex after the photoconversion of protochlorophyllide to chlorophyllide were impaired in dgd1, although the photoconversion reaction by NADPH:protochlorophyllide oxidoreductase is not affected by the DGDG deficiency. Total carotenoid content also decreases in etiolated dgd1 seedlings, but the carotenoid composition is unchanged
physiological function
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gene 7942dgdA encodiung digalactosyldiacylglycerol synthase is essential. 7942dgdA can be knocked out only when genes for cyanobacterial or plant digalactosyldiacylglycerol synthases are expressed. Lack of digalactosyldiacylglycerol cannot be compensated by the other membrane lipids in Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942 or by glucosylgalactosyldiacylglycerol synthesized by the beta-GlcT gene of Chloroflexus aurantiacus. Digalactosyldiacylglycerol has an indispensable role and the second galactose molecule is the key
physiological function
Dgd1 mutants have a greater than 90% reduction in digalactosyldiacylglycerol content, reduced photosynthesis, and altered chloroplast morphology. Mutant plants show an extremely short inflorescence stem. Phloem cap cells are lignified and jasmonic acid-responsive genes are highly upregulated under normal growth conditions. The coronative insensitive1 Dgd1 and allene oxide synthase Dgd1 double mutants no longer exhibit the short inflorescence stem and lignification phenotypes but still have the same lipid profile and reduced photosynthesis as Dgd1 single mutants. Dgd1 mutants display increased levels of jasmonic acid, jasmonic acid-isoleucine, 12-oxo-phytodienoic acid, and arabidopsides. Jasmonic acid biosynthesis in Dgd1 mutants is initially activated through the increased expression of genes encoding 13-lipoxygenases and phospholipase A-Ig3 (At1g51440), and is sustained by further increases in 13-lipoxygenase and allene oxide cyclase mRNA and protein levels
physiological function
the enzyme plays an essential role in nodule development and nitrogen fixation. It contributes to effective nodule organogenesis and nitrogen fixation by affecting the synthesis and content of digalactosyldiacylglycerol during symbiosis
physiological function
the enzyme is involved in the formation of the internal membrane structures in etioplasts as well as in membrane-associated processes of pigment biosynthesis and pigment-protein complex organization
physiological function
the N-terminal sequence of DGD1 is required for galactolipid transfer between the outer and the inner envelope of chloroplast
physiological function
expression of monogalactosyldiacylglycerol synthase 1 (MGD1) and digalactosyldiacylglycerol synthase 2 (DGD2) in Bacillus subtilis lacking both UDP-glucose 4-epimerase and glucolipid synthase activity allows the strain to produce monogalactosyldiacylglycerol. Extracytoplasmic function sigma factor SigX activity is strongly repressed when both MGD1 and DGD2 genes are expressed
physiological function
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gene 7942dgdA encodiung digalactosyldiacylglycerol synthase is essential. 7942dgdA can be knocked out only when genes for cyanobacterial or plant digalactosyldiacylglycerol synthases are expressed. Lack of digalactosyldiacylglycerol cannot be compensated by the other membrane lipids in Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942 or by glucosylgalactosyldiacylglycerol synthesized by the beta-GlcT gene of Chloroflexus aurantiacus. Digalactosyldiacylglycerol has an indispensable role and the second galactose molecule is the key
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Show AA Sequence and Transmembrane Helices (1373 entries)
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PDB
SCOP
CATH
UNIPROT
ORGANISM
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SUBUNIT
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY
LITERATURE
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POSTTRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATION
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY
LITERATURE
proteolytic modification
the active form of the enzyme does not require the 73 C-terminal amino acid residues. They may be cleaved off in vivo after import into the chloroplast
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CRYSTALLIZATION (Commentary)
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
LITERATURE
structure of isoform DGD in complex with UDP-galactose, in space group P41212 to 2.10 A resolution
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PROTEIN VARIANTS
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
COMMENTARY
LITERATURE
DELTA401-473
removal of around 70 C-terminal residues is necessary to produce a homogeneous monomeric protein sample with high purity, which was highly active. The active form of the enzyme does not require the 73 C-terminal amino acid residues
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PURIFICATION (Commentary)
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
LITERATURE
removal of around 70 C-terminal residues is necessary to produce a homogeneous monomeric protein sample with high purity, which was highly active
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CLONED (Commentary)
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
LITERATURE
co-expressed with a cucumber monogalactosyldiacylglycerol synthase in Escherichia coli
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expression in Escherichia coli
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EXPRESSION
ORGANISM
UNIPROT
LITERATURE
DGD1 is up-regulated during desiccation, with transcript levels detectable only at relative water content below 30%
gene expression is significantly upregulated by phosphate starvation
highly expressed in the infection zone of young nodules as well as in the whole mature nodules
in response to phosphorus starvation, the MtDGD1 expression level is substantially upregulated
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REF.
AUTHORS
TITLE
JOURNAL
VOL.
PAGES
YEAR
ORGANISM (UNIPROT)
PUBMED ID
SOURCE
Froehlich, J.E.; Benning, C.; Drmann, P.
The digalactosyldiacylglycerol (DGDG) synthase DGD1 is inserted into the outer envelope membrane of chloroplasts in a manner independent of the general import pathway and does not depend on direct interaction with monogalactosyldiacylglycerol synthase for DGDG biosynthesis
J. Biol. Chem.
276
31806-31812
2001
Arabidopsis sp.
brenda
Kelly, A.A.; Drmann, P.
DGD2, an Arabidopsis gene encoding a UDP-galactose-dependent digalactosyldiacylglycerol synthase is expressed during growth under phosphate-limiting conditions
J. Biol. Chem.
277
1166-1173
2002
Arabidopsis sp.
brenda
Benning, C.; Ohta, H.
Three enzyme systems for galactoglycerolipid biosynthesis are coordinately regulated in plants
J. Biol. Chem.
280
2397-2400
2005
Arabidopsis sp.
brenda
Kelly, A.A.; Froehlich, J.E.; Dormann, P.
Disruption of the two digalactosyldiacylglycerol synthase genes DGD1 and DGD2 in Arabidopsis reveals the existence of an additional enzyme of galactolipid synthesis
Plant Cell
15
2694-2706
2003
Arabidopsis sp.
brenda
Hrtel, H.; Dormann, P.; Benning, C.
DGD1-independent biosynthesis of extraplastidic galactolipids after phosphate deprivation in Arabidopsis
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
97
10649-10654
2000
Arabidopsis thaliana
brenda
Hofmann, N.R.; Theg, S.M.
Protein- and energy-mediated targeting of chloroplast outer envelope membrane proteins
Plant J.
44
917-927
2005
Physcomitrium patens
brenda
Torres-Franklin, M.L.; Gigon, A.; de Melo, D.F.; Zuily-Fodil, Y.; Pham-Thi, A.T.
Drought stress and rehydration affect the balance between MGDG and DGDG synthesis in cowpea leaves
Physiol. Plant.
131
201-210
2007
Vigna unguiculata (A4UNX4), Vigna unguiculata (Q07A01)
brenda
Awai, K.; Watanabe, H.; Benning, C.; Nishida, I.
Digalactosyldiacylglycerol is required for better photosynthetic growth of Synechocystis sp. PCC6803 under phosphate limitation
Plant Cell Physiol.
48
1517-1523
2007
Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803
brenda
Ingle, R.A.; Collett, H.; Cooper, K.; Takahashi, Y.; Farrant, J.M.; Illing, N.
Chloroplast biogenesis during rehydration of the resurrection plant Xerophyta humilis: parallels to the etioplast-chloroplast transition
Plant Cell Environ.
31
1813-1824
2008
Xerophyta humilis (Q84XL8), Xerophyta humilis
brenda
Maida, E.; Awai, K.
Digalactosyldiacylglycerol is essential in Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942, but its function does not depend on its biosynthetic pathway
Biochim. Biophys. Acta
1861
1309-1314
2016
Synechococcus elongatus, Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942
brenda
Lin, Y.T.; Chen, L.J.; Herrfurth, C.; Feussner, I.; Li, H.M.
Reduced bosynthesis of digalactosyldiacylglycerol, a major chloroplast membrane lipid, leads to oxylipin overproduction and phloem cap lignification in Arabidopsis
Plant Cell
28
219-232
2016
Arabidopsis thaliana (Q9S7D1)
brenda
Fu, B.; Brown, C.; Maeler, L.
Expression and purification of DGD2, a chloroplast outer membrane-associated glycosyltransferase for galactolipid synthesis
Biochemistry
59
999-1009
2020
Arabidopsis thaliana (Q8W1S1), Arabidopsis thaliana
brenda
Si, Z.; Yang, Q.; Liang, R.; Chen, L.; Chen, D.; Li, Y.
Digalactosyldiacylglycerol synthase gene MtDGD1 plays an essential role in nodule development and nitrogen fixation
Mol. Plant Microbe Interact.
32
1196-1209
2019
Medicago truncatula (A0A072U4F9), Medicago truncatula
brenda
Fujii, S.; Kobayashi, K.; Nagata, N.; Masuda, T.; Wada, H.
Digalactosyldiacylglycerol is essential for organization of the membrane structure in etioplasts
Plant Physiol.
177
1487-1497
2018
Arabidopsis thaliana (Q9S7D1)
brenda
Kelly, A.A.; Kalisch, B.; Hoelzl, G.; Schulze, S.; Thiele, J.; Melzer, M.; Roston, R.L.; Benning, C.; Doermann, P.
Synthesis and transfer of galactolipids in the chloroplast envelope membranes of Arabidopsis thaliana
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
113
10714-10719
2016
Arabidopsis thaliana (Q9S7D1)
brenda
Scaletti Hutchinson, E.; Martinez-Carranza, M.; Fu, B.; Maeler, L.; Stenmark, P.
Structure and membrane interactions of Arabidopsis thaliana DGD2, a glycosyltransferase in the chloroplast membrane
J. Biol. Chem.
301
108431
2025
Arabidopsis thaliana (Q8W1S1)
brenda
Kawakami, M.; Matsuoka, S.
Galactolipids from Arabidopsis thaliana can replace the function of glucolipids in Bacillus subtilis
J. Gen. Appl. Microbiol.
68
54-61
2022
Arabidopsis thaliana (Q8W1S1)
brenda
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